Elections in India: A glimpse from the past and the present

Sanjay Kumar

On the world map of all the democratic countries, India is always referred as the largest democracy in the world. This reference to India being the largest democracy in the world is primarily because of the size and magnitude of the electorate in India with nearly 970 million voters in 2024, equivalent to 1.5 times the population of Europe, participating in the Indian general elections 2024. Despite India's status as a relatively poor country, conducting elections at multiple levels requires massive effort. Yet, the country's electoral democracy not only survives but also grows stronger over time, although some concerns remain.

Regular, Free and Fair Elections: A basic tenant of Democracy

There are many tenants/features of what account for functioning of a vibrant democracy, but free, fair and regular elections are key to any democracy, India being no exception to it. India has demonstrated a commendable track record in conducting free, fair, and regular elections, with seventeen national elections resulting in significant turnovers in government, underscoring the country's commitment to democratic principles. India is in the midst of holding its 18th national election to elect a new government at the central level whereas its 29 states have their own independent government in quasi-federal nature and have gone through their own cycle of about 16 to 17 elections. While concerns regarding the fairness of elections are raised by various stakeholders such as political parties, civil society organizations, and the media, once election results are announced, there is widespread acceptance of their legitimacy. Hence, the Election Commission of India (ECI) deserves credit for its effective management of elections in India over the past several decades.

Increased Electoral Participation: A sign of healthy democracy

It is noteworthy that the last one decade has witnessed an increased voter-turnout in the Indian elections at all the levels- National Election (Lok Sabha), State Election (Legislative Assembly) and elections for the local bodies (Panchayats and Municipalities). The 2014 Lok Sabha election witnessed an increase of about eight percent in voters’ turnout, compared to the previous Lok Sabha elections. The 2019 Lok Sabha election witnessed a turnout only marginally higher than the turnout in 2014, but still the highest ever in the history of all Lok Sabha elections held in India.
There are clear evidences of women’s participation in much bigger numbers in the Indian elections now, compared to the past. The women lagged behind men in voting when elections were held in the early decades. Table 1 shows how this gap between men and women turnout started narrowing down over the decades and the last two Lok Sabha elections witnessed a massive increase in the women turnout. During the 2019 Lok Sabha election, female voter turnout at 66.8 percent, nearly equating the 66.9 percent turnout among male voters. However, women's participation in the legislative branch remains a persistent concern, with female representation never surpassing the 15% threshold in India's seven-decade electoral history. The newly passed Women’s Reservation Act of 2023 aims to catalyze a transformative shift in electoral politics by mandating that 33% of members in both the National Parliament and State assemblies be women.

Table 1: Lok Sabha Elections 1962-2019: Comparing turnout among Men and Women

Year	Male Turnout	Female Turnout	Gap
1962	59.31	46.68	12.63
1967	66.73	55.48	11.25
1971	60.90	49.12	11.78
1977	65.63	54.91	10.72
1980	62.16	51.22	10.94
1984	68.46	59.32	9.14
1989	66.13	57.32	8.81
1991	60.65	50.59	10.06
1996	62.06	53.41	8.65
1998	65.64	57.94	7.70
1999	63.96	55.64	8.32
2004	61.98	53.64	8.34
2009	60.24	55.82	4.42
2014	67.00	65.54	1.46
2019	66.89	66.79	0.10

Source: CSDS Data Unit



The youth have also started taking greater interest in the politics, resulting in their increased participation in voting. Table 2 shows that before the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, the Indian youth exhibited minimal electoral participation, lacking a distinct "youth vote" as they dispersed their support among various political parties much like other age groups. However, the landscape shifted during the 2014 Lok Sabha elections, marking the emergence of the youth as a discernible political demographic. In this election, the youth got more involved and enthusiastic about voting and notably leaned decisively towards one party, namely the BJP. This showed that youth were starting to become a significant political category. Last few decades have also witnessed participatory upsurge amongst the marginalized sections namely Dalits, Adivasis and the Muslims, though the pattern has not remained consistent over the years.

Table 1: Lok Sabha Elections 1962-2019: Comparing turnout among Men and Women

Lok Sabha Elections	Turnout amongst all voters (%)	Turnout amongst young voters (18-25 yrs.) (%)
1996	58	54
1998	62	60
1999	60	57
2004	58	55
2009	58	54
2014	66	68
2019	67	66

Source: CSDS Data Unit

Transformative Impact of Technological Change on Indian Elections

The evolution of technology, particularly driven by the digital revolution, is reshaping election campaigns and party organization in India. A significant milestone in this technological transition was the introduction of electronic voting machines (EVMs), which revolutionized the electoral process by replacing traditional ballot boxes and papers. Moreover, the 100% integration of Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail (VVPAT) machines alongside EVMs, in the 2019 General Elections marked a pivotal moment in ensuring the transparency and reliability of the electoral system.



In addition to the adoption of EVMs, the rise of the internet and social media has significantly influenced political outreach strategies in India. Social media platforms have become indispensable tools for political parties, facilitating direct engagement with voters and amplifying campaign messaging. The 2014 Lok Sabha elections witnessed the emergence of social media as a dominant campaigning platform, notably benefiting the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) led by Narendra Modi. For instance, findings from Lokniti-CSDS’s National Election Study 2019 revealed a correlation between voters' engagement with social media and their inclination to support the incumbent party, the BJP. It was noteworthy that despite this trend, the BJP also garnered a significant share of votes, amounting to 36%, from individuals who were not exposed to social media, constituting a substantial portion of the electorate.
In the 2024 election cycle, online campaigning has evolved into a frontline strategy for political parties, underscoring the increasing significance of social media in shaping electoral narratives. This shift highlights the expanding role of social media platforms in fostering inclusive, democratic, and engaging communication channels in Indian democracy.

Perceptions of the Indian General Election Results Among the Electorate

Increased electoral participation is frequently subject to diverse interpretations; some perceive it as a sign of discontent with the ruling party, while others see it as an indication of satisfaction with the government. However, the analysis of constituency-wise turnout across 17 Lok Sabha elections, has not conclusively established a correlation between higher turnout and anti-incumbency sentiments. This challenges the notion that electoral outcomes consistently mirror citizen satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the ruling party. One reason for this uncertainty arises from India's multi-party democracy, where many representatives are elected with a small fraction of votes, potentially failing to represent the majority accurately.


In the entire history of Indian elections, with First Past the Post (FPTP) electoral system, none of the parties have ever managed to get more than 50% votes in the 17 national elections held so far, though there are cases of candidates with a majority of popular votes (more than 50% votes). Parties such as the Congress in the 1984 elections(404 Lok Sabha seats with 49 percent vote-share) and the BJP in the 2014(282 Lok Sabha Seats with merely 31 percent vote-share) and 2019 Lok Sabha elections(303 Lok Sabha seats with 37 percent vote-share) shows the critical picture. However, Recent trends in Indian elections show a noticeable shift towards candidates winning with over 50% of the popular vote, resulting in governments that better represent majority support. In the 2019 Lok Sabha elections, the ruling BJP won 224 seats with candidates polling over 50% of the vote, challenging the belief that many elected representatives enter Parliament with minimal voter backing.
Despite allegations that the Election Commission has become a favourable entity of the ruling party, various surveys have consistently shown that between 65-70% of Indian voters express satisfaction with the functioning of democracy over the past seven decades. Surveys conducted by Lokniti-CSDS shows that nearly 70% of Indians believe in the efficacy of their vote to influence change in government.

Leadership Waves and Charismatic Campaigns: Shaping Indian Elections

Indian elections have not solely revolved around political parties and their ideologies but have also been influenced by the charismatic leadership that motivates their supporters on the ground. In the broader context of Indian general elections, whenever a political party has secured a clear majority in the Lok Sabha, it has been accompanied by a wave of charismatic leadership, among other factors. For instance, the tenures of Prime Ministers who secured clear majorities, such as Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Morarji Desai, Rajiv Gandhi, and the current Prime Minister Narendra Modi, were marked by vigorous charismatic campaigns before their election victories. Conversely, other general elections have resulted in coalition governments due to the absence of a single party with a clear majority in the Lok Sabha.

Graph 1 Comparison of Popularity of Narendra Modi and Rahul Gandhi since 2023.



The more recent "Modi wave" during the 2014 elections was particularly noteworthy, representing a phenomenon where a strong leader gains significant ground in a landslide victory. Graph 1 illustrates Narendra Modi's sustained popularity since he was announced as the NDA's candidate for prime ministership in 2013, showing no decline since then. Such widespread popularity propelled him to secure another term in 2019 with a landslide majority of 303 seats in the Lok Sabha, and he is now aiming for a similar outcome in the 2024 elections. These examples and data demonstrate how these waves stem from the core charisma and competence of these leaders, coupled with their authoritarian and populist leadership styles, which generate strong political momentum in their favour during elections.

Voter’s registration still remains as concern

Voter registration may not be an issue in rural India, but there are serious issues of underrepresentation of voters among the migrant sections, especially the migrants belonging to the lower economic classes. The urban India, especially big metropolitan cities, also faces the problem of a large number of ghost voters due to frequent mobility of voters from one location to another within the city, or from one city to the other, due to various reasons, work and marriage being the most common ones.

Concern about Integrity of elected representative

Concerns persist regarding the quality of candidates as a large number of elected representatives in India at all levels have a tainted background. The influence of money and muscle power in elections has been evident for some time but has become more pronounced since the mandatory requirement for candidates to disclose their assets and criminal records through affidavit submissions alongside nomination papers. The non-profit and non-partisan institution, Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR), conducted an analysis of the self-sworn affidavits submitted by 763 incumbent Members of Parliament from a total of 776 seats in the Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha. The findings reveal that approximately 40% of these sitting MPs have criminal cases filed against them, with 25% facing charges classified as serious, including offenses such as murder, attempted murder, kidnapping, and crimes against women.

Concerns over escalating Election costs in India

There are growing concerns over the escalating costs of elections in India, evident from trends observed between the 2004 and 2019 Lok Sabha elections. Despite Election Commission limits on candidate expenditure, breaches are widespread, compounded by undisclosed spending by political parties. For instance, in the 2019 elections, the BJP and Congress declared official expenditures of ₹1,264 crore and ₹820 crore respectively, yet a report by the Centre for Media Studies estimated total election spending at ₹50,000 crore, with a significant portion allocated to illegal voter inducements. This substantial funding, primarily sourced from corporate entities, fosters an undesirable nexus between donors and elected officials. Projections by the CMS for the 2024 general elections indicate a further rise in expenditures upto ₹1 lakh crore (approx.), underscoring the urgency for comprehensive legislation to regulate electoral spending by individual candidates, political parties, and associated entities.